First step for control: delegitimizing the press
Books censored
- Can be jailed or tortured for publishing anti-government
Climate of fear among those who have power
- If one person has too much power
  - Target of repression
  - Scapegoat

newspaper protests and corporatization

Economic pressures and intimidation by KCIA
- Kyunghyang Shinmun and Chosun Ilbo became government voices
  - Taken over from behind
  - Government agents controlling
- Donga Ilbo last resistant newspaper
  - Speaking out against government problems
Suppression of ad campaign against Donga Ilbo (Dec. 1974–Jul. 1975)
- KCIA pressures advertisers to pull ads
- Revenue decreases 0%
- Editors create white-space protests
- Anti-government messages
Free speech movements go underground
- Information unverifiable
Corporatization
- Restricting licensing
  - Reduces numbers
- Chaebeol takeovers
  - Government ties
  - Increase profit
  - Government encouraged takeovers of oppositional newspapers
Result: less newspaper opposition

torture in Korean History

Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897)
- Institutionalized (penal code)
- Interrogation
- Punishment
Japanese Colonial Period (1910–1945)
- “Legally prohibited”
  - But common practice
- Modern techniques
  - Electricity
  - Medicine
- Political, for suppression
  - Korean Nationalists
  - Communists
  - Christians
    - Opposing idols of Shinto = opposing state

1948 Constitution
- Article 10: human rights
- Article 12.2: no torture
National Security Law
Continued to use (1948–1987)
- Security agencies
- National and local police
- Interrogation
- Punish political challengers and communists
- Suppress political dissidents
Does not respect human rights
High profile cases
- Kim Keum-tae (1985): democracy activist and politician (torture)
- Kwon In-sook (1986): women’s labor activist (sexual assault)
- Park Jong-chul (1987): pro-democracy student (died by waterboarding)
  - Major impetus for movement, June uprising
Anti-torture movement
1987: Constitution Provision Article 12
- Prohibit torture to get confessions (section 2)
- Confessions using torture not admitted as evidence (section 7)
1990 April: adherance to Human Rights Treaties
- 1966: Convention on Civil and Political Rights
- 1984: Convention Against Torture
1991: member of UN
- Adherance to 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Shift
- Softening
- State sponsored to neglecting minimal use of to monitoring

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
- Article 5: no “torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”
- Article 9: no “arbitrary arrest, detention or exile”
International Covenants (1966)
- Article 7: “the freedom from torture or any other cruel treatments, inhuman or degrading”
Gain legitimacy within world for nation states
- Follow standard practices of a just and proper society
  - Legitimacy
  - Stability
  - Partnerships
Signaling commitment to human rights
- Not always in practice